Recently, my colleague Dr. Ethan Siegel wrote an article explaining why F = ma — that is, force = mass x acceleration — is the most important equation in physics.

That got me thinking: Does every scientific field have an equation like this. An equation so important, that the topic or field itself couldn’t exist without it.

(This is the unbalanced version. The balanced version is: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2.).

This is photosynthesis, and without it, there likely would be no plants or animals. For reasons that I will describe in more detail later, every living creature needs three things: a source of energy, a source of carbon, and a source of electrons.

Yet, as important as photosynthesis is, note that it is not necessary for life itself. Microorganisms have found a way to survive just about anywhere on Earth.

Light is nice to have but not necessary for life to evolve. While photosynthesis is not especially energy efficient, it is the ultimate form of self-sufficiency.

The relationship worked out wonderfully, as these ancestral amalgamations eventually evolved into the wide diversity of plants we have today. As a result, all plants photosynthesize (with the exception of some parasitic ones).

But behind the scenes is a mind-bogglingly complex series of biochemical reactions, and perhaps even a dash of quantum mechanics.

Water is the source of electrons that plants need to get the process started. When light (the source of energy) hits chlorophyll (inside of a complex structure known as a photosystem, which is itself embedded in a membrane called a thylakoid), the molecule gives up electrons — which go on to accomplish some amazing things.

This makes the oxygen atom lonely and unhappy, so it partners up with another oxygen atom, forming O2, the molecular form of oxygen that we breathe.

Like a game of “hot potato,” electrons are passed from protein to protein. As they travel, they cause protons (H+) to be pumped to the other side of the membrane, creating a powerful electrochemical gradient, akin to a battery.

If cells had money, ATP would be that money. But that’s not the only thing those traveling electrons do.

Essentially, NADPH is a molecule than can carry electrons somewhere else, usually for the purpose of building something. Let’s pause to summarize what the plant has accomplished so far: It absorbed light and used that energy to rip electrons away from water, producing oxygen (O2) as a side product.

Now, it’s time to spend that money and put those electrons to use one more time in a process called the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle is the point at which carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the scene.

(The enzyme that carries out this reaction, called rubisco, is likely the most abundant protein on Earth.) Notice that the cell has to use the ATP and the NADPH that it generated earlier to keep the cycle going. The ultimate output of the cycle is a molecule called G3P, which the cell can use for a variety of things — from making food (like the sugar glucose) to building structural molecules so the plant can grow.

Every part of the photosynthesis equation now has been accounted for. A plant cell uses carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) as inputs — the former so that it can convert carbon into a solid form and the latter as a source of electrons — and creates glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) as outputs.

After all, the plant needs to “eat” the glucose it just made, and it requires oxygen to do so. Even though some microbes live without light or photosynthesis, most of the life on Earth is completely dependent on it.

Without photosynthesis, we would not be here. As a corollary, planets that don’t get enough sunlight to support photosynthesis almost certainly don’t host complex life forms.

Hug your house plant today.

The NADPH and ATP generated in the light reactions enter the stroma, where they participate in the dark reactions. Energy and electrons provided by ATP and NADPH, respectively, are used to incorporate CO 2 into carbohydrate via a cyclic pathway called the Calvin-Benson cycle.

These then go through the rest of the cycle, regenerating ribulose bisphosphate as well as the three-carbon sugar glyceraldehyde phosphate. It takes three turns of the cycle to produce one glyceraldehyde phosphate, which leaves the cycle to form glucose or other sugars.

Some plants bind CO 2 into a four-carbon compound before performing the Calvin-Benson cycle. Such plants are known as C4 plants or CAM plants, depending on the details of the CO 2 capture process.

To a kid standing in a sunny garden, it may not seem like much is happening. A butterfly flaps by, or a bird visits the bird feeder.

A quick explanation of photosynthesis can help kids to understand that not only are the plants in the garden working hard to make their own food, but that this amazing process is the reason there’s any life on Earth at all.

Every living thing has to have a source of energy if it’s going to stay alive. Energy is what keeps our bodies growing and our brains working.

People and animals get their energy from the food we eat, like fruits and vegetables. But where do the fruits and vegetables get their energy.

Unlike people who have to eat energy, plants make their own. They do it through a process called photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis is a chemical process that takes place at the cellular level inside leaves. It requires three important ingredients in order to work.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas in the air all around us. When people and animals exhale, they’re emitting carbon dioxide.

When we water our plants, we’re providing them with one of the key components to their energy creation process. The rays of the sun are what bring it all together.

So what does the process look like.

The leaves “breathe in” the carbon dioxide in the air through their leaves. Water is soaked up by the roots, traveling through the plant stem and into the leaves.

Inside the leaves, there are tiny microscopic structures called chloroplasts. And inside these chloroplasts is chlorophyll, a green pigment.

The chlorophyll traps that light energy from the sun, and then uses it to power a chemical reaction that converts carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose (a kind of sugar). The plant doesn’t need much of this oxygen, so it “breathes” most of it out into the air.

The glucose will stay inside the plant as food. The plant will combine that food with nutrients from the soil to make more leaves, flowers, fruits, or vegetables.

By making that glucose, the plant has essentially made its own food. And it will use that glucose to grow.

It’s true that some plants have red or purple leaves. But they still have green chlorophyll inside.

Regardless of the color of the leaves, all plants go through photosynthesis. Even plants like the Venus Fly Traps that “eat” bugs still get most of their energy from photosynthesis.

The process of photosynthesis—turning sunlight into energy—explains why plants need light in order to grow. Kids may wonder if light is so important, why don’t we put all of our plants in full sun.

While sunlight is important, too much hot sun can scorch the leaves and actually prevent them from doing their job. The heat from the sun causes the water in the leaves to dry up.

So in hot places like in Texas, we have to be careful to ensure that plants don’t get more sun than they can handle. The process of photosynthesis is where so much of life on Earth begins.

Without photosynthesis, there would be no produce, no animals, and no people.

Want to learn more about gardens. Check out these helpful articles:.

Green plants make sugar for growth by a process called photosynthesis, which means making things with light.

The glucose molecules created by photosynthesis act as fuel for cells and are used for cellular respiration and fermentation. Carbon dioxide + water (and light ) ———> glucose and oxygen.

It is chlorophyll which gives plants their green colour. Chloroplasts are one of the organelles in a plant cell.

Sunlight is also needed to make chlorophyll. If plants are kept in the dark, they can’t make chlorophyll and will have yellow leaves.

Four factors affect the rate of photosynthesis. The faster it occurs, the more the plant grows.

Water – lack of water slows photosynthesis down. Temperature – photosynthesis works best at around 30 degrees Celsius.

Plants make the energy to grow through a process called respiration. This uses the sugar produced by photosynthesis and oxygen.

They are thin and have a large surface area. This means they can absorb a lot of sunlight, and gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass in and out of the leaf easily.

Plants, algae, and some types of bacteria use photosynthesis to create energy. Chlorophyll is a green pigment which absorbs energy from blue and red light waves and reflects green light waves, which is why plants look green.

This is where photosynthesis occurs. As well as allowing plants to make energy for growth and repair, photosynthesis has an important ecological impact.

This creates a source of carbon for animals who cannot create their own and also removes carbon dioxide from the air, slowing down the rate at which it builds up in the atmosphere. Photosynthesis also creates oxygen which is needed for most of the life on Earth.

Last Updated on March 23, 2023 by Emma Vanstone.

Manganese (Mn) is an essential micronutrient that while needed in small amounts, plays a key role in photosynthesis. Mn sparks the photosynthesis process by splitting water after Photosytem II (PSII) fixes light to initiate the conversion of CO2 and water into carbohydrates.

In this post we will specifically examine the role of manganese in plants, the consequences if its deficiency and provide solutions to mitigate the crop stress due to manganese shortage or deficiency.

The very first step of this reaction starts with a light photon striking the Photosystem II (PSII) to initiate photosynthesis. This absorption of light energy helps split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen, generating free electrons.

This becomes an electrochemical gradient in which ions move through two sets of enzymes called NADP Reductase and ATP synthase that are responsible for generating energy molecules (Adenosine Tri Phosphate aka ATP) and reducing power (NADPH). The result of this leads to the formation of sugars in the outer part of the chloroplast during the Calvin cycle.

See Figures 1 and 2 below for more details on a plant’s internal reactions during photosynthesis. For more information, watch the narrated Youtube video:

Its average concentration is about 650 ppm. Mn undergoes oxido-reduction easily in the soil, its chemistry is complex and not yet fully understood, although three oxidation states are known: Mn2+, Mn3+, Mn4+.

Mn deficiency is a plant disorder that is often confused with, and often occurs in conjunction with, iron deficiency. It can occur in a wide variety of soil conditions including weathered soils, soils formed of parent material deficient in Mn, soils with high pH, sandy soils, heavy manured or limed land, excessive use of N or P and peat or mucky soils with high organic matter content.

When it persists, the appearance of blackish/brown spots along the veins become visible and it’s more noticeable on the lower side of the leaves. If not corrected on time, the irregular, grayish-brown lesions coalesce leading to a collapse of the leaf (i.e., Gray Speck Symptoms).

The common symptoms are interveinal chlorosis or yellowing, first developing on the leaf edges. If Mn deficiency is not prevented, detected early and corrected, serious symptoms can occur in crops, including a drop in photosynthesis, which affects many processes of growth and development including grain fill and quality.

Soil tests at regular intervals are typically a good way of detecting and tracking soil conditions that may produce Mn deficiency in the crop. In season, one should conduct tissue or SAP testing to assess the level of Mn in planta.

OMEX offers a wide range of Primers, Starters, Foliars, PGRs, Biologicals and Biostimulants to help optimize growth and development of crops in ideal and less-than-ideal conditions that are able to prevent or correct many deficiencies, including Mn deficiency.

In season, the application of certain pesticides creates temporary shortage of Mn available to the younger growth, exacerbating the symptoms of Mn deficiency. Foliars, especially the ones formulated with Stress Reliever Technology (i.e., C3, P3, Nutriboost) help mitigate the early season stress that could trigger Mn deficiency.

In crops requiring two applications of herbicides (i.e., Canola, Corn, Soybeans) the Mn shortage is more pronounced during the second pass. Products such as Super Mn(+) have been formulated to tank-mix with the pesticides to mitigate Mn deficiency without interfering with weed control.

In cereal crops prone to lodging the application of Mn-containing products such as Fortis proved to trigger the accumulation of lignin and prevent the crop from falling over (see our previous blog on crop lodging). Talk to your local Ag Retailer or get in touch with your OMEX representative to learn more about OMEX products and how they can help you prevent or correct deficiencies, including Mn, and preserve yield and quality of your crops.

1 Plants and Photosynthesis. 2 How do plants make their own food.

The way plants make their own food is through a process called Photosynthesis. 3 carbon dioxide (from the air) water (from the soil)One of the raw materials that plants need to make food does come from the soil, the other comes from the air.

carbon dioxide (from the air) water (from the soil) Plants use carbon dioxide and water to make their own food in a chemical reaction. What is the name of this reaction.

4 light energy carbon dioxide (from the air) water (from the soil)Plants need energy for photosynthesis to take place. Where does this energy come from.

Where in a plant does photosynthesis take place.

6 light energy (radiant )What are the products of photosynthesis. light energy (radiant ) Glucose (chemical energy) carbon dioxide (from the air) oxygen water (from the soil) What type of energy transformation occurs during photosynthesis.

7 Energy TransformationPhotosynthesis transforms radiant/light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose(sugar). e-education.psu.edu.

light energy carbon dioxide (from the air) chlorophyll glucose oxygen water (from the soil) It is chlorophyll that absorbs light/radiant energy from the Sun to make photosynthesis happen.

In this chemical reaction, chlorophyll in plant cells absorbs light energy to change carbon dioxide and water into glucose and the by-product oxygen. What is the word equation for photosynthesis.

11 Leaves are small ‘factories’ that produce food for plantsby photosynthesis. Leaves are adapted so that photosynthesis can take place.

What features of leaves make them suitable for photosynthesis.

carry water to the leaf and take food from the leaf to the rest of the plant. Veins also help to support the leaf.

Small holes called stomata in the underside of a leaf allow gases in and out. Veins.

14 How does water enter a plant. Water is one of the raw materials needed for plants to carry out photosynthesis.

Water from the soil enters a plant through the roots. You can’t normally see them but roots are a very important part of a plant.

15 How are roots adapted. water Roots are branched and spread outfor two reasons: to absorb water (and mineral salts) from a large amount of soil.

Taking a closer look, roots are covered in root hair cells. Root hair cells have thin walls and a large surface area to help them absorb lots of water.

water. 16 Why do plants need water.

to transport substances around the plant. to keep the plant rigid and upright.

to allow other chemical reactions to occur in plant cells. What happens to a plant if it does not get enough water.

17 Glossary chlorophyll – The green pigment inside chloroplaststhat plants need for photosynthesis to take place. chloroplast – The part of a plant cell where photosynthesis occurs.

photosynthesis – The process by which plants use carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen in the presence of light and chlorophyll. starch – Extra glucose from photosynthesis is stored as this substance which can be tested for with iodine.

xylem – Tubes in veins that carry water around a plant.

Photosynthesis is a chemical process by which plants, some bacteria, and algae convert energy derived from sunlight to chemical energy. This is an important process for biological life on earth because it allows energy from sunlight to be harnessed and transferred into a form that can be utilized by organisms to fuel their activity.

The carbohydrate molecules can later be utilized as energy by the organism with a chemical process such as respiration, producing byproducts – carbon dioxide and water. There are 2 types of photosynthe sis known as oxygenic and anoxygenic photosynthesis, depending on whether oxygen is produced in the reaction.

The most common type of photosynthesis is oxygenic photosynthesis, which is commonly seen in algae, plants, and cyanobacteria. In this process, energy from light is utilized to transfer electrons from H2O molecules to carbon dioxide (CO2).

As a result of the reaction, oxygen and carbohydrates are produced. Oxygenic photosynthesis serves to balance the transfer of energy that occurs during the process of respiration.

Oxygenic photosynthesis replaces oxygen in the air with the assistance of energy from sunlight. In the absence of oxygenic photosynthesis, atmospheric oxygen would eventually be depleted.

However, the overall process can be summarized using the following chemical equation: 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy à C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O.

As a result, a single glucose molecule, six oxygen molecules, and six molecules of water are formed. Anoxygenic photosynthesis utilizes electrons from molecules other than water to create chemical energy from light.

Importantly, oxygen is not produced during anoxygenic photosynthesis. The end product depends on the molecule that is the electron donor.

Similar to oxygenic photosynthesis, there is a complex process with multiple steps for anoxygenic photosynthesis, which can be summarized with the following chemical equation: CO2 + 2H2A + Light Energy à CH2O + 2A + H2O.

As an example, the ‘A’ may be the sulfur in the reaction to convert one molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of hydrogen sulfide into the end products.

Photosynthesis is all around us. It’s happening under our feet, above our heads and in the sunlit zones of aquatic environments.

Why is it so important. And, when did it evolve.

For those who missed it, check out these five astonishing plant adaptations or find out whether plants are conscious. Photosynthesis is the process by which carbohydrate molecules are synthesised.

It’s probably the most important biochemical process on the planet. Essentially, it takes the carbon dioxide expelled by all breathing organisms and reintroduces it into the atmosphere as oxygen.

The process takes place entirely in the chloroplasts, and it’s the chlorophyll within the chloroplasts that make the photosynthetic parts of a plant green. Photosynthesis is important too, elsewhere in the biosphere.

Without photosynthesis, the carbon cycle could not occur, and we would soon run out of food. Over time, the atmosphere would lose almost all gaseous oxygen, and most organisms would disappear.

These ingredients come from both the adjacent atmosphere and the soil. Plants absorb sunlight through the two top layers of their leaves, the cuticle and epidermis.

Carbon dioxide is brought in from the atmosphere, and at the same time, water is drawn up from the soil, into the body of the living plant. Just beneath the cuticle and epidermis are the palisade mesophyll cells.

Below the palisade mesophyll cells is the spongy mesophyll tissue, which is loosely packed for efficient gas exchange. As gases move in and out of these cells, they dissolve in a thin layer of water that covers the cells.

They contain chlorophyll, molecules that don’t absorb green wavelengths of white light. Instead, they reflect it back to us, giving plants their green colour.

A light-dependent reaction takes place, where energy from the light waves is absorbed and stored in energy-carrying ATP molecules. Then, in a light-independent reaction (the Calvin Cycle), ATP is used to make glucose, a source of energy.

Oxygen is released via stomata in the leaves, microscopic pores that open to both let in the carbon dioxide, and release oxygen (and water vapour). Photosynthesising organisms form the base of the food chain.

As well as the light energy, carbon dioxide and water, plants also need nutrients, which they get from the soil. These nutrients are released again, or recycled, when the plant tissue dies and begins decomposing in the soil.

Plants also release energy and water to the atmosphere through respiration. 6CO2 6H2O → C6H12O6 6O2.

Six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules (the reactants) are converted into one sugar molecule (C6H12O6) and six oxygen molecules, via the light energy captured by the chlorophyll. During photosynthesis, energy passes through the system, and you can think of photosynthesis as an energy flow system, tracing the path of solar energy through the ecosystem.

As these organisms are eaten and digested by the primary consumers, chemical energy is released and this is used to power new biochemical reactions. At each level of energy transformation throughout the food chain, some energy is lost as waste heat.

This energy is not stored for use by other organisms higher up the food chain. This is one of the reasons why both the number of organisms and their total quantity of living tissue decrease as you go further up the food chain.

As organic matter from photosynthetic life was buried in the strata, carbon was removed from the atmosphere allowing oxygen to accumulate. Evidence suggests that photosynthetic organisms were present around 3.2 to 3.5 billion years ago, in the form of stromatolites.

As this early oxygen diffused into the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere), solar radiation transformed the oxygen molecules into ozone, which created the stratospheric ozone layer. And of course, as the ozone layer absorbs most of the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation (UV-B), it plays an important role in protecting human health, so it’s unlikely that life would have flourished without this protective shield.

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Thanks. I got information for my project.

If you think about it, the cells that create energy inside of a plant through the process of photosynthesis are like archaic engines creating food for the plant to grow.

I thin that as our oil reserves deplete we will look toward alternatives like photosynthesis as our answer to how we can provide the same energy requirements that our massive markets now demand.

Honestly the situation has a potentially deadly consequence and we should invest money now into photosynthesis research as to avoid major issues in the near and far future. @thumbtack, while your statement seems very altruistic the unfortunate part is the logical fallacy that we could ever harvest photosynthesis for direct consumption of energy.

Basically because we our vehicles and turbines cannot consume glucose directly like a plant can, some sort of energy conversion must happen to harness the full potential of a plant’s photosynthesis.

If this technology were to ever come to the consumer market it would be one step closer to enjoying the natural benefits of photosynthesis. I hold out hope that someday science will be able to harvest the power of photosynthesis and create usable energy out of it.

Just like the author states, it is incredibly important for us to decrease the rate at which we are consuming plants as they provide the earth with energy and oxygen.

Either way if we are able to develop the technology that harnesses photosynthesis, there will need to be a push toward making the process as efficient as possible.

No one benefits from this lost energy and simplifying the process would the best way to utilize ever part that we can.

Photosynthesis is the chemical process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use the energy from sunlight to transform carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) from the atmosphere, and water, into organic compounds such as sugars. These sugars are then used to make complex carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as the wood, leaves, and roots of plants.

Energy flows through the biosphere as organisms (including some animals) eat photosynthesizing organisms (called herbivores), and as organisms then eat those herbivores (carnivores), etc., to get their energy for growth, reproduction, and other functions. This energy is acquired through the process of cellular respiration, which usually requires oxygen.

About 70% of the oxygen in the atmosphere that we breathe comes from algae in the ocean. Atmospheric oxygen from photosynthesis also forms the ozone layer, which protects organisms from harmful high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.

Fossil fuels are derived from the burial of photosynthetic organisms, including plants on land (which primarily form coal) and plankton in the oceans (which primarily form oil and natural gas). While buried, the carbon in the organic material is removed from the carbon cycle for thousands of years to hundreds of millions of years.

This return of carbon back into atmosphere as carbon dioxide is occurring at a rate that is hundreds to thousands of times faster than it took to bury it, and much faster than it can be removed by photosynthesis or weathering. Thus, the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is accumulating in the atmosphere, increasing average temperatures and causing ocean acidification.

The rate of photosynthesis in ecosystems is affected by various environmental conditions, including: Humans have altered the rate of photosynthesis, and in turn productivity, in ecosystems through a variety of activities, including:

These processes operate at various rates and on different spatial and temporal scales. For example, carbon dioxide is transferred among plants and animals over relatively short time periods (hours-weeks), but the deforestation alters ecosystems over decades to centuries, or longer.

Click the bolded terms (e.g. respiration, productivity and biomass, and burning of fossil fuels) on this page to learn more about these process and phenomena.

Learn more in these real-world examples, and challenge yourself to construct a model that explains the Earth system relationships.

The study of photosynthesis began in 1771 with observations made by the English clergyman and scientist Joseph Priestley. Priestley had burned a candle in a closed container until the air within the container could no longer support combustion.

In 1779 the Dutch physician Jan Ingenhousz expanded upon Priestley’s work, showing that the plant had to be exposed to light if the combustible substance (i.e., oxygen) was to be restored. He also demonstrated that this process required the presence of the green tissues of the plant.

Gas-exchange experiments in 1804 showed that the gain in weight of a plant grown in a carefully weighed pot resulted from the uptake of carbon, which came entirely from absorbed carbon dioxide, and water taken up by plant roots. the balance is oxygen, released back to the atmosphere.

As temperature levels increase, the amount of dissolved oxygen in water decreases due to the inverse relationship between dissolved oxygen and temperature.

The amount of DO in water bodies also tells us a lot about the water quality in wastewater and drinking industries.

Increases in the water’s temperature are also linked to increased metabolic rates, which affect the biochemical oxygen decay and increase nitrification, photosynthesis, and respiration.

The Earth’s surrounding air consists of 21% O2, which slowly diffuses across the water’s surface or enters via aeration. This process can occur naturally (wind) or human-induced (waterwheels, pumps, and dams).

Photosynthesis from phytoplankton, algae, and other aquatic plants can also produce dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen is then depleted via chemical oxidation and respiration by aquatic organisms and the decomposition of organic materials present in the water.

Many factors affect DO levels in the water, but changes in the temperature of the water are the most common.

as temperature increases in water, DO levels decrease.

Also, as water temperatures increase, the solubility of oxygen decreases, increasing water pollution and negatively affecting aquatic habits and organisms.

However, despite temperature increases leading to declined DO levels, as aquatic photosynthesis is light-dependent, the DO levels in the water usually peak during the daytime and decline during the night.

Low levels of DO from increased water temperatures also affect the solubility and availability of essential nutrients. When nutrients are released from the sediment, it can cause fluctuations in the pH of the water and allow excess algae growth from elevated levels of phosphorus and nitrogen.

Dissolved oxygen is one of the most significant indicators of water quality in water treatment systems and aquariums. Water that has a DO concentration above 6.5-8 mg/L and between 80-120% is considered healthy.

Despite different organisms having a particular tolerance range, DO levels lower than 3 mg/L are a cause for concern, and levels below 1 mg/L are considered hypoxic.

Aquatic animals that are mobile can usually survive hypoxic waters by moving to areas rich in oxygen, however, in closed systems like aquariums and ponds, the fish are unable to escape from the low DO levels, and therefore they die.

This includes the number of eggs that hatch, the larval development of fish, and fish populations. In wastewater treatments, low DO concentrations below 1 mg/L allow filamentous growth to take over, killing aerobic and nitrifying microbes.

In drinking water systems, low DO levels allow minerals to dissolve into the water, affecting the water quality. Despite higher DO levels improving the taste of drinking water, elevated oxygen levels often increase corrosion in water pipes, therefore, public water systems aim to use water with the least amount of DO without it affecting the water quality.

Temperature and DO are the main indicators of water quality, therefore it is important to closely monitor levels in different applications.

As dissolved oxygen has an inverse relationship to temperature, probes must be calibrated before each use.

Temperature sensors are recommended to accurately measure temperature levels in the water. Temperature sensors work by providing readings via electrical signals.

So, what happens if you have exceeded the dissolved oxygen concentration.

As temperature levels increase, the amount of dissolved oxygen in water decreases due to the inverse relationship between the two.

When DO levels drop below 3 mg/L, it can have detrimental effects, therefore frequently testing DO levels is required in a wide range of industries and applications. If you have any questions regarding temperature or dissolved oxygen, or what testing kit will best suit your application needs, do not hesitate to contact our world-class team at Atlas Scientific.

Photosynthesis n., plural: photosyntheses [ˌfŏʊ.ɾoʊ.ˈsɪn̪.θə.sɪs] Definition: the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by photolithorophs. Table of Contents.

Among the endless diversity of living organisms in the world, producers are a unique breed. Unlike consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, or decomposers) that rely upon other living organisms for their nutritional requirements and nourishment, producers have been distinguished by their ability to synthesize their own food.

Now among producers, there are different categories of producers, i.e. different mechanisms via which they produce their own food.

So, let’s get started and get to know the answers to these common questions: what is the photosynthesis process, what are the 3 stages of photosynthesis, what does photosynthesis produce, what is a byproduct of photosynthesis, what is the purpose of photosynthesis, is photosynthesis a chemical change, the various inputs and outputs of photosynthesis, which organisms perform photosynthesis, and many other more questions.

Photosynthesis definition: Photosynthesis is a physio-chemical process carried out by photo-auto-lithotrophs. In simpler language, photosynthesis is the process by which green plants convert light energy into ‘chemical energy’.

The chemical energy as referred to before is the fixed carbon molecules generated during photosynthesis. Green plants and algae have the ability to utilize carbon dioxide molecules and water and produce food (carbohydrates) for all life forms on Earth.

Let’s give you a brief outline of the topic before we head forward. Watch this vid about photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis may basically be simplified via this equation: 6CO2+12H2O+energy=C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O, wherein carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and light energy are utilized to synthesize an energy-rich carbohydrate like glucose (C6H12O6). Other products are water and oxygen.

Plant photosynthesis and photosynthetic organisms can be classified under different categories on the basis of some characteristic features. They are:

Both the stages need light (direct or indirect sunlight). Hence, the long-claimed notion of the 2 processes being ‘absolute LIGHT and DARK reactions’ isn’t apt.

Therefore, rather than classifying the stages as light and dark photosynthesis reactions, we’ll like to classify the 2 stages as follows: It is postulated that the very first photosynthetic beings and photosynthesis evolved quite early down the evolutionary timescale of life.

It is believed that cyanobacteria would have appeared on the surface of Earth much later than the first photosynthetic beings. Once appeared they must have saturated the Earth’s atmosphere with oxygen gas and led to its oxygenation.

When we compare photosynthesis to other metabolic processes like respiration, we can clearly notice that these two processes are almost opposite to each other. But another point to note is that both the processes in synchrony sustain life on Earth.

It is not possible that way. Let’s try to compare and list some characteristic features of photosynthesis and cellular respiration processes.

The absorption of sunlight is the most vital step of photosynthesis. We should also note that the energy of photons is different for every light of different wavelengths.

For the absorption of lights of desired wavelengths, phototrophs organize their pigment molecules in the form of reaction center proteins. These proteins are located in the membranes of the organisms.

There are 2 types of photosynthetic pigments in the oxygenic photosynthesizing organisms. They are as follows:

Let’s try to list its major characteristic features and roles of it. Carotenoid is the photosynthetic pigment essential for working in conjunction with chlorophyll.

Phycobilins aren’t present in all the oxygenic photosynthetic organisms. They have a tetrapyrrole structure (no need for magnesium ion).

In eukaryotes, photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts as they are the designated organelles for the photosynthesis process. There are nearly 10-100 chloroplasts in a typical plant cell.

the very specific site for the light capturing. The structure of this very unique part of the chloroplasts is briefly discussed here.

They are also present as such in the cytosol of cyanobacteria (cyanobacteria don’t have chloroplasts but they have simply thylakoids). These thylakoids are the “primary site of the 1st stage of photosynthesis.

“photochemical reaction” or popularly called “light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis”. The main components of the thylakoid are membrane, lumen, and lamellae.

The first stage of photosynthesis is popularly called “light-dependent reactions”. We choose to call this stage the “1st stage: PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION STAGE”.

This stage is marked by 3 essential steps of photosynthesis: Oxidation of water, reduction of NADP+, and ATP formation. The site where these reactions occur is the lamellar part of the chloroplast.

Let’s discuss this stage under some subheadings: The white light that reaches Earth has subparts of different wavelengths together constituting the visible spectrum (390-760nm).

PAR ranges from 400-760nm. Blue light is 470-500nm while red light is 660-760nm).

Blue-green light is not used, only blue light is used. IMPORTANT NOTE: The absorption spectrum is calculated for any of the many pigments involved in photosynthesis.

chlorophyll-a present at the reaction center. We identify the progress of photochemical reactions as the “evolution of oxygen gas” that primarily happens at the reaction center where only chlorophyll-a is present.

Examples: Let’s briefly describe what actually happens here.

The answer to this query is “photolysis of water molecules”. The chlorophyll molecule regains the lost electron when the “oxygen-evolving complex” in the thylakoid membrane carries out the photolysis of water.

Many scientists had a doubt about the source of oxygen in photosynthesis. Some speculated the oxygen atom of the CO2 gas is the source of oxygen post-photosynthesis.

Van Niel worked on purple photosynthetic bacteria (Chromatium vinosum) and found out that the source of oxygen is the oxidation of water molecules (‘indirect evidence’). While Ruben, Hassid, and Kamen carried out an isotopic study that gave ‘direct evidence’ of oxygen-evolving from H2O molecules and not CO2 molecules.

When you feel low on energy and need a snack, you probably just open the refrigerator or rifle through a kitchen drawer. When plants get the urge for an energy bump, their process is a bit more complex and also more direct because they go straight to the source: the sun.

To do this, they require carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). In the presence of sunlight, these molecules break apart and form glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2).

In order to produce energy, plants undergo a process called photosynthesis. The chemical formula for photosynthesis is 6CO2 + 6H2O ——> C6H12O6 + 6O2.

While plants take in carbon dioxide through tiny pores located on their leaves, stems and flowers, they need specialized structures to gather water and move it up through their stems. Most plants use roots to pull water from the earth.

Since the cytoplasm of the root hair cells has lower water potential than the water in the soil, osmosis pulls the water from the root hairs through the root cortex and into the xylem. The xylem is a system of tubelike vascular bundles that transports water up the plant’s stem and into its leaves.

The process of moving water through the plant is called transpiration. Plants with enough water and carbon dioxide harness the power of photons gathered from sunlight to complete photosynthesis.

The sugar (glucose) can be used for energy immediately or stored for later use while the oxygen releases through the plant’s pores as a waste product. Since humans can’t perform photosynthesis, they rely on the energy produced and stored by plants.

Even if the snack is meat-based, plants were the initial energy source for the animal. It’s hard to imagine that the energy that sustains your life and allows you to move started out as carbon dioxide, water and sunlight – but it’s true.

Photosynthesis (/ˌfoʊtəˈsɪnθəsɪs/ FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis) is a biological process used by many cellular organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy, which is stored in organic compounds that can later be metabolized through cellular respiration to fuel the organism’s activities.

such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth’s atmosphere, and supplies most of the biological energy necessary for complex life on Earth.

Some bacteria also perform anoxygenic photosynthesis, which use bacteriochlorophyll to split hydrogen sulfide as a reductant instead of water, and sulfur is produced as a byproduct instead of oxygen.

Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centers that contain photosynthetic pigments or chromophores.

The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy to later drive other reactions: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the “energy currency” of cells.

In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.

The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons. Cyanobacteria appeared later.

Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about eight times the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 billion tons (91–104 Pg petagrams, or a billion metric tons), of carbon into biomass per year.

Photosynthesis is vital for climate processes, as it captures carbon dioxide from the air and then binds carbon in plants and further in soils and harvested products. Cereals alone are estimated to bind 3,825 Tg (teragrams) or 3.825 Pg (petagrams) of carbon dioxide every year, i.e.

Most photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms use carbon dioxide as a source of carbon atoms to carry out photosynthesis.

In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This oxygenic photosynthesis is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms.

Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.[citation needed].

photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction.

Nutrients used in cellular respiration include carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids. These nutrients are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy to drive the organism’s metabolism.

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are distinct processes, as they take place through different sequences of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.[citation needed]. The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelis van Niel is:.

This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light-dependent reaction and a product of the light-independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation:. Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron-supply role.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the hydrogen carrier NADPH and the energy-storage molecule ATP.

Most organisms that use oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.

Some archaea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump.

The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis.

In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself. However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes.

In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts.

This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma.

The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space.

Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color.

Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.

In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light-harvesting complex.

Photosynthesis and respiration are the two main plant growth processes that are key to healthy plants and quality crops.

Figure 1: Image from Khanacademy.org. During photosynthesis, leaves and stem cells use solar energy to combine carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air with water absorbed through root cells to make sugar in the form of glucose.

Glucose is also a critical fuel source for root cell respiration, a process that’s basically the opposite of photosynthesis. In respiration, root cells burn glucose that’s been transported from the leaves.

Figure 2: Image from Vecteezy.com. Without oxygen, respiration does not take place.

The amount of oxygen available to root cells matters for healthy plant growth rate and crop yield. Without a lot of oxygen available to them, root cells are limited in the amount of sugar they can burn and how much water and nutrients are absorbed.

Weak plants are more susceptible to diseases and less resilient to environmental stressors, such as heat during the warmer months. Oxygenation of the root zone is a common practice in greenhouses.

Additionally, growers who reuse irrigation water need to improve the quality of the water after each irrigation event.

In addition to greenhouse growers, growers of specialty field crops also benefit from irrigation water oxygenation. Well water – and reservoirs with well water – commonly lack oxygen sufficient for optimal plant health.

This means there will be a lot more DO required for microbes to break down the organic components present. Oxygenation methods are key to achieving acceptable DO to reduce BOD and promote healthy plant roots.

Whether using water stored in a reservoir or directly from the source, quality irrigation water that’s high in oxygen is critical for root development and plant performance. Oxygen is also critical in reducing and suppressing disease from Pythium species, or Phytophthora infections.

If the DO levels in the root zone are low, this can “affect morphology, metabolism and physiology” of the root and plants. These deviations have a negative effect on plant growth and make them more susceptible to diseases like Pythium.

Diffusers have 1-2% oxygen transfer efficiency and Venturi and Sparger systems have around 20-40%. Though Venturi and Sparger have higher transfer rates, they are highly inefficient and not economical for growers.

Chilling systems use a large amount of energy and increase operational costs substantially, making them less sustainable and economical, especially with increasing energy costs. Nanobubble technology is a sustainable, cost-effective way to raise DO in the root zone to optimum levels.

Nanobubbles also provide a proven and chemical-free way to effectively disinfect water and irrigation tubing, preventing water-borne root disease and biofilm accumulation. These benefits improve water quality, boost plant vigor and reduce reliance on chemical applications.

Growers can set the nanobubble generator to a target DO to achieve optimal oxygen availability for their crop. Moleaer’s technology has enabled growers to increase DO levels in the root zone by at least 50% and up to 100%, keeping consistent concentrations even in warmer waters.

When root cells are enabled to absorb the maximum amount of water and nutrients possible, maximum root development, plant growth and crop yield are achieved. With nanobubble technology, Rebel Farms increased their DO concentrations by 300% at their hydroponic NFT facility in Denver, achieving a yield increase of 22%.

Gebroeders Koot, a Dutch greenhouse tomato grower, increased its DO levels by 250% and achieved healthier roots year-round. Outdoor growers also see benefits from increased DO concentrations.

In addition to efficient oxygenation, nanobubble technology also produces nanobubbles that have unique chemical and physical properties. Through these properties, nanobubbles reduce water-borne pathogens and biofilm.

As irrigation water flows, nanobubbles move around randomly and continually through all parts of a water system via Brownian motion. They are attracted to surfaces like irrigation piping walls, where they abrade and scour biofilm, a matrix that forms on most surfaces that come in contact with water.

Reduced biofilm limits the spread of pathogens and extends the life of irrigation systems. Also, growers are able to reduce chemical applications for biofilm removal.

Without the use of chemicals, nanobubbles also lyse bacteria cells and oxidize water-borne pathogens. When nanobubbles encounter contaminants, they collapse and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS).

As explained recently by scientists at the University of Massachusetts and Arizona State University, “ROS production by nanobubbles may hold the greatest promise for usage in water treatment because it allows movement away from chemical-based oxidants (chlorine, ozone) that are costly, dangerous to handle and produce harmful by-products while helping achieve important treatment goals (e.g., destruction of organic pollutants, pathogens, biofilms).”.

NovaCropControl, a Dutch research institution, did a study on greenhouse tomato crops irrigated with nanobubble-infused irrigation water. They saw an 80% reduction in Pythium levels, a common water-borne pathogen that affects root health.

Researchers saw 74% lower Pythium counts, lower instances of Phytophthora disease and overall healthier root mass. Moleaer’s nanobubble generators are enabling greenhouse growers to achieve ideal water oxygenation levels much more efficiently, driving plant growth and better quality yields all without the use of chemicals.

The food we eat ultimately comes from plants, either directly or indirectly. The importance of plants as the global kitchen can never be underestimated.

A molecule, chlorophyll (Chl), is crucial for this process, since it absorbs sunlight. However, the way land plants produce their food is very different from the way plants in the oceans produce their food.

Phycobiliproteins are proteins that make this job easier, by absorbing the available light and passing it on to Chl. These phycobiliproteins are found in tiny, invisible organisms called cyanobacteria.

It is, therefore, very important for everyone to understand how cyanobacteria make their food, and what important roles the phycobiliproteins play in the process. When you think of food, do you usually come up with images of your favorite food.

To fulfill this basic need, all living things either make their own food or get it from some other source. Humans can eat both plants and animals.

Ultimately, we see that everybody on this planet is dependent on plants for their food. But then, what do plants eat.

The process by which land plants produce their own food using sunlight and carbon dioxide is known as photosynthesis (Figure 1). While carbon dioxide is absorbed by the leaves, the sunlight is captured by a chemical molecule in the plant, called chlorophyll (Chl).

However, the way land plants perform photosynthesis does not help the organisms living in the oceans, which cover nearly 70% of our earth. Plants in the oceans face problems with light availability.

Luckily, ocean plants get help in producing food from such limited light and carbon dioxide, from tiny microscopic microbes called cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae). These microbes have adapted to dim light conditions, and they carry out photosynthesis both for themselves and for the benefit of other living things.

Cyanobacteria are said to be responsible for creating the oxygen-filled atmosphere we live in. For carrying out photosynthesis in low light conditions, cyanobacteria have the help of proteins called phycobiliproteins, which are found buried in the cell membranes (the outer covering) of the cyanobacteria.

Since light has a difficult time penetrating into the oceans, phycobiliproteins make this job easier by absorbing whatever light is available. they absorb the green portion of the light and turn it to red light, which is the color of light required by Chl.

The green light has to pass through different phycobiliprotein molecules, which absorb light of one color and give out light of another color. The color that is given out is then taken up by a second phycobiliprotein, which turns it into a third color.

For this whole process to take place, we have three different kinds of phycobiliprotein molecules arranged as a sort of a hat over the Chl molecule, as you can see in Figure 3. These three kinds of phycobiliproteins are:

(b) C-phycocyanin (CPC), deep blue in color and responsible for absorbing the orange-red portion of sunlight. (c) Allophycocyanin (APC), light blue in color and responsible for absorbing the red portion of sunlight.

These bilins are responsible for absorbing light of one color and emitting light of another color, thus causing a change in the color of light. Advanced instruments have let us analyze the arrangement of these molecules and proteins in the cyanobacteria.

One end of the stack is made of CPE, whereas the other end is made of CPC. This assembly joins to the core, made of APC.

The arrangement of the hat-like structure has been shown in Figure 3. The change in light color from green to red takes place through a process known as fluorescence.

Imagine a transparent container filled with a pink-colored liquid that, when illuminated with a flashlight, shines a bright orange. That is exactly what CPE does (Figure 4).

After CPE changes green light to yellow-orange, CPC takes up the yellow-orange light and changes it to light red. APC takes up this light-red light and changes it to a deep red light for Chl.

The entire process is a sort of a relay race, where each participant picks up where the previous one left off (Figure 5). These phycobiliproteins are an important part of the tiny microscopic organisms called cyanobacteria, which carry out photosynthesis in much the same way as land plants do.

So, we now know that photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce their food, using Chl. We also know that the reduced amount of light available in the oceans decreases this photosynthetic process.

These phycobiliproteins are found in tiny, invisible-to-the-naked-eye cyanobacteria, whose photosynthesis is responsible for providing food for the living organisms in the oceans and also for making the oxygen in our atmosphere that we breathe every second. Isn’t it exciting that these tiny organisms can make such a difference to marine life.

Photosynthesis: ↑ A process by which plants produce food for themselves and other organisms using sunlight and carbon dioxide gas. Chlorophyll: ↑ A chemical molecule present in plants that absorbs the sunlight for photosynthesis.

Fluorescence: ↑ The property of certain compounds to absorb one color of light and to give off another color. Phycobiliproteins use this property to change the color of light they absorb so that the light can be used for photosynthesis.

This manuscript has been assigned registration number CSIR-CSMCRI – 114/2016. TG gratefully acknowledges AcSIR for Ph.D.

↑ Sidler, W. A.

Phycobilisome and phycobiliprotein structure. In: Bryant, D.

The Molecular Biology of Cyanobacteria. Dordrecht: Springer.

139–216. ↑ Ghosh, T., Paliwal, C., Maurya, R., and Mishra, S.

Microalgal rainbow colours for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. In: Bahadur, B., Venkat Rajam, M., Sahijram, L., and Krishnamurthy, K.

Plant Biology and Biotechnology: Volume I: Plant Diversity, Organization, Function and Improvement. New Delhi: Springer.

777–91. ↑ Satyanarayana, L., Suresh, C.

X ray crystallographic studies on C-phycocyanins from cyanobacteria from different habitats: marine and freshwater. Acta Crystallogr.

F 61(9):844–7. doi:10.1107/S1744309105025649.

Oxygen liberated during the photosynthesis process comes from water and not from CO2 molecules. Cornelius van Niel proved this for the first time.

He came to a conclusion that when H2S is consumed as a Hydrogen donor instead of Water (H2O), then the Oxidation product is Sulpher. Oxygen is not liberated in this process.

In photosynthetic organisms of different plant species undergo photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, light energy is converted into chemical and other types of energy.

These include anaerobic and aerobic photosynthetic bacteria and eukaryotic plants and algae. The process of photosynthesis can be broken down into different stages.

In photosynthesis, green plants, algae, and some bacteria use solar energy. They use it to convert CO2 to oxygen and sugars.

Some of these principles are also used in the respiration process of animals.

Plants and animals use the same chemical process to convert food into energy. The only difference between photosynthesis and respiration is the source of the energy.

The oxygen that we breathe comes from photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process in which photosynthetic organisms trap light energy.

Photosynthesis is the chemical process by which this conversion takes place. The first step of photosynthesis is the absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

In this step, the chlorophyll absorbs a photon of light and transfers its energy to a series of molecules. This process converts light energy into chemical energy.

Scientists call this process photosynthesis. Energy from the sun enters the leaves of plants through chlorophyll, a green pigment.

This light energy is used to make sugars. Plants need these sugars to grow and to produce the oxygen we breathe.

Carbon dioxide. Water.

Plants have their own methods of extracting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The light-dependent reactions capture the light energy and convert it into chemical energy.

These include the synthesis of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. They synthesize from carbon dioxide and water.

The cell structure of a leaf consists of layers of cells. The bottom layer is the ‘epidermis’.

It protects the leaf from harmful UV rays and harmful temperatures. The second layer of the leaf is ‘mesophyll’.

Parenchyma cells are responsible for water and nutrient transportation. Each mesophyll cell contains a large number of tiny openings called ‘stomata’.

light intensity. carbon dioxide concentration.

Check this pdf for a more detailed analysis. The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6O2.

They are energy generation from light and Carbon fixation from CO2. It is done by carbon-containing gases like CO2 and H2CO3.

C6H12O6 is Glucose, a sugar. 6O2 is Oxygen, the gas you breathe.

It’s a set of reactions, called the Calvin Cycle. In summary, the carbon and oxygen atoms in 6CO2 get stuck together to make sugar.

In photosynthesis plants and organisms convert light energy into chemical energy. This energy fuels other activities of the plant.

Stage one is called the light-dependent reactions (or light reactions). Stage two is called the light-independent reactions (or dark reactions).

The light energy is obtained from the sun in the case of green plants. The reactions in stage one use the energy from the light to make the chemical energy.

They are adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). The chemical energy stored in these molecules is used later in the dark reactions.

The light-independent reactions take place on the stroma of the chloroplast. They use light energy along with chemical energy in ATP and NADPH.

Plants convert energy from light. Scientists have studied ways to replicate this energy.

Scientists have also tried to use plants to generate electricity. Some research suggests that plants can generate electricity through a chemical process.

It is useful to generate electricity to charge batteries.

When you need to know how helpful oxygen generated from plants is. The best way to know is to consider the question of what are the results of free oxygen in nature.

That’s why, not only for us but also for our children, it is a big deal to plant trees and other plants. So, how helpful oxygen generated from plants is.

The reason why it’s a big deal to plant trees and other plants. The most important thing is to save the earth and to be environment friendly.

Plants are responsible for a very small percentage of Co2 in the atmosphere. Man is responsible for most of the Co2 in the atmosphere through the use of fossil fuels.

It is not nearly as simple as plants liberating Co2. Some of the Co2 disappears and some of it remains in the atmosphere.

It moves into the sea where it becomes carbonic acid. This acid harms the underwater mountain tops, mostly limestone, causing them to dissolve.

This is another thing that is slowly killing off our coral reefs.

The process is explained in an easy-to-understand manner. This should be useful to anyone.

The oxygen produced in photosynthesis is eventually released into the atmosphere. But glucose is used for energy by the plant.

It’s a complex chemical process. It is used by all photosynthetic organisms including algae and plants.

Many lines of evidence support the concept of electron flow via two light reactions. An early study by American biochemist Robert Emerson employed the algae Chlorella, which was illuminated with red light alone, with blue light alone, and with red and blue light at the same time.

It was substantial with blue light alone but not with red light alone. With both red and blue light together, the amount of oxygen evolved far exceeded the sum of that seen with blue and red light alone.

It is now known that light reaction I can use light of a slightly longer wavelength than red (λ = 680 nm), while light reaction II requires light with a wavelength of 680 nm or shorter. Since those early studies, the two light reactions have been separated in many ways, including separation of the membrane particles in which each reaction occurs.

These electrons can be transferred to ferredoxin, the final electron acceptor of the light stage. No transfer of electrons from water to ferredoxin occurs if the herbicide DCMU is present.

It is now known that DCMU blocks the transfer of electrons between the first quinone and the plastoquinone pool in light reaction II. When treated with certain detergents, lamellae can be broken down into smaller particles capable of carrying out single light reactions.

In the presence of electron donors, such as a reduced dye, a second type of lamellar particle can absorb light and transfer electrons from the electron donor to ferredoxin (light reaction I).

2 8.2 Photosynthesis Pages 222-227. 3 LEQ: How is energy, which ultimately comes from the sun, transformed into useable energy.

4 Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process of turning light energy into chemical energy.

6 Photosynthesis Photosynthesis occurs in TWO phases. 1.Light-dependent reactions 2.Light-independent reactions (dark reactions).

1.Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 2.Water (H20) Energy (sunlight) = Catalyst. 8 Where do the reactants come from.

The stomata is where gas exchange occurs. CO 2 in.

9 Where does everything come from. Water (H 2 0) comes from the soil absorbed by the plants roots.

10 Where does everything come from. Light energy comes from the sun and is captured by chloroplasts.

11 Chloroplasts Chloroplasts capture light energy and are found mainly in the LEAVES.

REVIEW. What are the 2 reactants and how do they get into a plant.

Light—The chloroplast. Is photosynthesis catabolic or anabolic.

13 What organelle does photosynthesis take place in. Chloroplast.

thylakoids – saclike photosynthetic membranes grana – stacks of thylakoids stroma – space outside the thylakoids. 15 obtain How plants obtain energy Thylakoids have light- absorbing colored molecules called PIGMENTS Chlorophyll Chlorophyll a & b = blue/green Xanthophyll Xanthophyll = yellow Carotenoids Carotenoids = orange/red Anthocyanin Anthocyanin = red/purple.

17 Ok… now we have all the reactants….Lets make some SUGAR.

18 The Two Phases of Photosynthesis Phase I – Light Dependent Reaction (occurs in the thylakoids) –Light energy is absorbed and TRANSFORMED to chemical energy (ATP and NADPH molecules) Rember Chemical energy is ATP.

19 Video Clip Explaining Phase I of Photosynthesis – Light Dependent Reactions B9o&feature=player_embedded B9o&feature=player_embedded. 20 What you NEED to Know.

21 Phase II – Light Independent Reaction (or the Dark Reaction/Calvin Cycle) (occurs in stroma) –NADPH and ATP that were formed during light dependent reactions are used to make glucose. 22 transform How plants transform energy Calvin Cycle converts carbon dioxide into sugar using the NADPH & ATP energy from the light- dependent reactions.

23 Light Independent Reaction (The Dark Reaction) (Calvin Cycle) 1.ATP and NADPH contain a high amount of energy, but are short stores (no longer than a few minutes). 2.So plants use the ATP and NADPH to build GLUCOSE which can be stored for a longer time.

24 The Calvin Cycle 1. Does not require light.

6 carbon dioxide molecules are required from the atmosphere 3. ATP & NADPH powers the cycle.

2.Uses for sugars include: form starches & cellulose. When other organisms eat plants, they can also use the energy stored in carbohydrates.

26 And Now a boring person explaining it. 27 Summary of Photosynthesis Light Reactions Inputs: Light Water Outputs: ATP NADPH Oxygen (O2) OCCURS IN THYLOKOID Dark reactions (Calvin cycle) Inputs: ◦ ATP ◦ NADPH ◦ CO2 Outputs: ◦ Sugars OCCURS IN THE STROMA.

29 Let’s review… Light-dependent reactions Light-independent reactions. 30 What materials come into the chloroplast that are used in the light-dependent reactions.

31 What material comes into the chloroplast that is used by the Calvin Cycle.

33 What materials move out of the chloroplast from the Calvin Cycle.

35 What materials move from the Calvin Cycle back to the light-dependent reactions.

Amount of water 2. Temperatures 3.

Amount of CO2. 37 Alternative Pathways C4 Plants- When water is scarce these plants keep there stomata closed.

CAM Plants-Only open there stomata at night. 38 And Now……….

SH4&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode =1&safe=active SH4&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode =1&safe=active. 39 A.

Golgi apparatus C. mitochondria D.

Cellular Energy 8.2 Formative Questions Chapter 8. 40 A.

They release more oxygen. C.

They reduce the requirement for ATP. How are the C 4 pathway and the CAM pathway an adaptive strategy for some plants.

42 STOP. Using the cards provided, at your lab table, assemble the equation for photosynthesis with your lab partner(s).

Write the equation for photosynthesis on the paper as well.

SH4&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode =1&safe=active SH4&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode =1&safe=active.

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Plants are producers. Instead of consuming food to get energy, they make their own.

Photosynthesis involves the same molecules and chemical reactions in land plants and aquatic plants. Floating plants photosynthesize much like plants that grow on land.

Leaves are the main site for photosynthesis. Leaves contain chloroplasts, which are the organelles in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.

Only a few molecules of chlorophyll absorb green wavelengths. As a result, plants appear green because they reflect more green light than they absorb.

The simple sugars produced in photosynthesis bond to from more complex starches such as cellulose that provide structure to plants. In addition to providing a food source for animals and other consumers, photosynthesis also removes carbon dioxide from the environment and replenishes oxygen.

Light dependent reactions involve the absorption of sunlight and the breakdown of water molecules into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons. The goal of this stage is to capture light energy and transfer it to the electrons to make energized molecules such as ATP.

The second stage of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin cycle, uses the energized molecules created in the first stage to split carbon dioxide molecules taken in from the plant’s environment. The breakdown of carbon dioxide and water molecules in the cell results in the formation of sugar molecules.

Aquatic plants may take in carbon dioxide from the air or water, depending on whether their leaves float or are under water. The leaves of floating plants, such as lotus and water lilies, get direct sunlight.

They can take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen into the air. The exposed surfaces of the leaves have a waxy cuticle to mitigate water loss to the atmosphere, like terrestrial plants.

Gases such as carbon dioxide diffuse much more slowly in water than in air. Plants that are fully submerged have greater difficulty obtaining the carbon dioxide they need.

Smaller leaves can more readily absorb carbon dioxide from the water, so submerged leaves maximize their surface to volume ratio. Some species supplement their carbon dioxide intake by extending a few leaves to the surface to absorb carbon dioxide from the air.

The amount of light energy absorbed by an underwater plant is less than the energy that is available to land plants. Particles in water such as silt, minerals, animal waste and other organic debris reduce the amount of light that enters the water.

As depth below the surface increases, the amount of sunlight available to aquatic plants decreases. Some plant species have anatomical, cellular or biochemical adaptations that allow them to carry out photosynthesis successfully in deep or murky water despite the decreased availability of sunlight.

Some forms of bacteria as well as algae and other protists perform photosynthesis. Colonies of single-celled algae work together to form the macroalga kelp, commonly known as seaweed.

What is the most essential for life on Earth. Water, of course.

Yet photosynthesis uses only a very small part (5 to 6% in the best conditions, less than 1% on average) of the solar energy arriving on Earth. This energy allows the annual fixation of 115 to 120 billion tons of carbon from the atmospheric CO2 into the biomass (see The path of carbon in photosynthesis).

Photosynthesis is also responsible for producing the oxygen we breathe. But then how do photosynthetic organisms manage to collect solar light and how do they recover the energy it contains.

“On August 16, 1771, I put a spring of mint into a transparent closed space with a candle that burned in the air until it soon went out.

Global photosynthesis pattern. [Source for the background image, Reculée des Planches, Jura, France © Pierre Thomas, Planet-Terre]This metabolic process confers autotrophy* to photosynthetic organisms (plants, algae, cyanobacteria).

The following equation summarizes this process of photosynthesis (Figure 1) : n [CO2 (carbon dioxide) + H2O (water)] + solar energy → (CH2O)n (sugar) + n O2 (oxygen).

Using solar energy, they produced oxygen that slowly accumulated in the environment, causing a real “revolution in evolution”. The oxygen enrichment of the original atmosphere led to the creation of the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from solar ultraviolet radiation, causing changes in climate and in the composition of the Earth’s crust.

Figure 2. Maple leaves in the light.

The -generally flattened- shape of the leaf of a green plant, its orientation -facing the light- and its thinness make it an efficient receiver for solar radiation (Figure 2). Leaf cells contain a large number of chloroplasts in their cytoplasm (Figure 3).

In one gram of spinach leaf, there are about 500 million chloroplasts. On average, almost 60% of the total mass of leaf proteins is located in the chloroplasts.

Figure 3. Chlorophyllian cells (here leaf from the aquatic moss Plagiomnium affine).

[Source: Kristian Peters — Fabelfroh / CC BY-SA 3.0]Observed under an electron microscope (Figure 4), a chloroplast appears as an ovoid disc, 7 to 8 microns long by 2 to 3 microns in diameter. It consists of three parts:

Chloroplast observed under electron microscopy (top). A distinction is made between the cell wall, mitochondria (site of cell respiration) and a chloroplast (site of photosynthesis) where granular thylacoids (singular granum, plural grana) and intergranular lamellae are clearly differentiated.

[Sources: Top, Photo Eldon Newcomb © Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. Bottom, © At-Chloro [ reactions are coordinated in these various compartments:

Why are they green. The answer to this question seems simple: because they contain chlorophyll (see Focus The colour of leaves).

We only see the wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that activate receptors in the cells of our retina. These receivers are sensitive to 3 colours (blue, green and red) and detect the light reflected to the eye by objects in our environment.

However, people with various forms of colour blindness do not distinguish all of these colours, the most common confusion being between green and red. Each animal species has its own specific vision (for example, bees see in ultraviolet light) and very few animals see green leaves (see Light, Vision and Biological Clocks and The Colours of the Sky).

The various wavelengths of visible sunlight are absorbed by the leaf, except green (left diagram). The various forms of chlorophylls mainly absorb wavelengths between 400 and 500 nm and between 600 and 700 nm, but very little between 500 and 600 nm [Source of the diagram on the right: Chlorophyll_ab_spectra2.PNG: Daniele Pugliesiderivative work: M0tty / CC BY-SA 3.0].For photosynthesis, the quality of light is more important than the quantity.

Chlorophyll b is more effective in the blue part of the spectrum. On the other hand, they are very inefficient at absorbing green light, which is then reflected by the leaf.

If chlorophyll was optimally absorbed in all regions of the spectrum, plants would look black to us, even in daylight.

However, very strong light can lead to excess energy in the leaves, which leads to photoinhibition: oxidative stresses* can then damage the light-capturing structures (see How do plants cope with alpine stresses. ).

Quantum efficiency and maximum efficiency of photosynthesis as a function of light intensity. [Source : Adapted from ref.]Light is the driving force of photosynthesis.

However, there is saturation at high intensities: some reactions become limiting (for example because of CO2 concentration or temperature). These observations revealed the existence of two types of reactions: those that required light (the so-called “light” or photochemical reactions) and those that could take place in the absence of light (improperly called “dark” reactions, but rather biochemical reactions).

It takes about 9 to 10 photons to allow the production of this oxygen molecule. This corresponds to a quantum efficiency – i.e.

This experiment led to the concept of a photosynthetic unit which will be demonstrated later with the characterization of photosystems. Figure 7.

600 nm) is present in the experiment. This experiment, initially carried out by Emerson and Lewis, was later taken up by Govindjee who took into account adsorption, an experiment represented here (ref.

In the 19th century, Engelmann , showed the importance of the light color in an experiment with filamentous algae (spirogyre type) illuminated by light spots and then with a prism where aerobic bacteria* serve as an indicator of oxygen production. Bacteria density was highest in the areas illuminated by the blue and red lights.

This is due to the so-called accessory pigments, which are also capable of absorbing light energy. This is particularly the case with carotenoids, which absorb light in the violet-to-red range of the spectrum.

In the formula we mentioned above, the components on the left side are inputs, or reactants that will later be transformed into outputs after the photosynthesis process, including CO2 (carbon dioxide), water (H2O), and sunlight.

Plants obtain carbon dioxide from the air as their primary source. During photosynthesis, CO2 can enter the plant through small openings on the surface of leaves called stomata.

Once inside the plant’s cells, carbon dioxide plays a vital role in the production of glucose during photosynthesis. CO2 serves as a source of carbon atoms that are incorporated into organic molecules.

Uptake of Water by Plant Roots. Water is another vital input for photosynthesis.

These thin, elongated projections increase the surface area for water absorption, enhancing the plant’s ability to uptake moisture from the soil. Role of Water in Photosynthesis and Transport.

Role of Sunlight in the Photosynthetic Process. Sunlight, the primary source of energy for photosynthesis, provides the photons necessary to initiate the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

Sunlight is composed of different wavelengths, and the visible light spectrum is particularly important for photosynthesis. Chlorophyll pigments in the plant’s chloroplasts absorb light energy, specifically in the red and blue regions of the spectrum.

Absorption of Light by Pigments (Chlorophyll). Chlorophyll, the main pigment responsible for capturing light energy, is abundant in the chloroplasts of plant cells.

The absorbed light energy is then converted into chemical energy, which is used to power the synthesis of glucose and other organic compounds. In this part, we’ll get to know the two outputs of photosynthesis – glucose, and oxygen.

Production of Glucose as the Primary Product. Glucose is the primary product of photosynthesis.

Glucose is a simple sugar, represented by the chemical formula C6H12O6. It serves as a versatile and vital energy source for plants and is utilized for various metabolic activities.

Glucose produced during photosynthesis is utilized by plants for several purposes.

Release of Oxygen as a Byproduct. During photosynthesis, one of the key outputs is the release of oxygen as a byproduct.

This oxygen release occurs through stomata, which we’ve explained above.

No need to emphasize the paramount importance of oxygen for supporting life on Earth. After all, almost all organisms rely on oxygen to carry out cellular respiration, which provides energy for various metabolic activities.

To sum up, the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis are integral components that contribute to the vitality of plants. Carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight serve as the inputs, providing the necessary elements and energy for the process.

The two inputs of photosynthesis that are matter are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). No, ATP is not an input or output of photosynthesis.

The final output of photosynthesis is glucose (C6H12O6), but oxygen is also one output as a byproduct.

It is a pigment present in the chloroplasts of plant cells that captures light energy and plays a crucial role in the initial stages of photosynthesis.

This process by which all plants convert light energy into chemical energy that’s then used to drive different metabolic processes is critical to the success of a crop, and without the right levels of light plants can yellow, droop, drop leaves, or fail to grow properly. For growers, it is critical to ensure that lighting is managed perfectly to avoid the issues that poor photosynthesis can cause.

The primary cellular structures that ensure photosynthesis takes place are chloroplasts, thylakoids and chlorophyll. Photosynthesis takes place inside the chloroplasts that sit in the mesophyll of the leaves.

Now this is where things get interesting – the impact that different light wavelengths have on photosynthesis. Photosynthesis in numbers.

The surface of the leaf absorbs the blue and red wavelengths while the green light is absorbed deeper within the plant. This light is what’s absorbed by the chloroplasts and is most effective in photosynthesis and the conversion of energy.

The light spectrum used by plants is known as Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR) which defines light spectrum as well as the levels of solar radiation that sit between 400 and 700 nm.

The light dependent process takes the light that has been absorbed by the thylakoids and turns it into chemical energy and this then is used to turn the CO2 absorbed by the leaves into carbohydrates which forms the light independent part of the process. The entire cycle, known as the Calvin Cycle, creates the by-products of glucose and oxygen, the former used by the plant, the latter released into the atmosphere.

To ensure that photosynthesis is optimised, growers need to invest into lights that emit the right levels of PAR radiation at the right intensity, which means they have to work with grow lights that are designed to produce the correct colour spectrum and that are correctly placed.

In addition to considering light intensity and quality, you will need to balance light timings to ensure that the plant is receiving a mix of ‘day’ and ‘night’ light, and the temperature of the grow space. Plants need to undergo the process of photoperiodism in order to flower or reach specific stages of the growth cycle, and they can’t grow in conditions that are too hot or too cold.

It’s worth working with a company that understands the full impact of grow lighting on your plants and can help you implement a grow light layout and design that takes all these factors into consideration. Light Science Technologies has in-depth understanding of the technology, the science, and how to support you in achieving the correct light, heat and distance so your plants can photosynthesise and grow.

The processes in all organisms—from bacteria to humans—require energy. To get this energy, many organisms access stored energy by eating, that is, by ingesting other organisms.

All of this energy can be traced back to photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is essential to all life on earth.

It is the only biological process that can capture energy that originates in outer space (sunlight) and convert it into chemical compounds (carbohydrates) that every organism uses to power its metabolism. In brief, the energy of sunlight is captured and used to energize electrons, which are then stored in the covalent bonds of sugar molecules.

The energy extracted today by the burning of coal and petroleum products represents sunlight energy captured and stored by photosynthesis around 300 million years ago. Figure 1.

Cyanobacteria and planktonic algae can grow over enormous areas in water, at times completely covering the surface. In a (d) deep sea vent, chemoautotrophs, such as these (e) thermophilic bacteria, capture energy from inorganic compounds to produce organic compounds.

(credit a: modification of work by Steve Hillebrand, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

credit c: modification of work by NASA. credit d: University of Washington, NOAA.

Figure 2. The energy stored in carbohydrate molecules from photosynthesis passes through the food chain.

(credit: modification of work by Steve VanRiper, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).

Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are called photoautotrophs (literally, “self-feeders using light”). Other organisms, such as animals, fungi, and most other bacteria, are termed heterotrophs (“other feeders”), because they must rely on the sugars produced by photosynthetic organisms for their energy needs.

hence, they are referred to as chemoautotrophs. The importance of photosynthesis is not just that it can capture sunlight’s energy.

Photosynthesis is vital because it evolved as a way to store the energy in solar radiation (the “photo” part) as high-energy electrons in the carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrate molecules (the “synthesis” part). Those carbohydrates are the energy source that heterotrophs use to power the synthesis of ATP via respiration.

When a top predator, such as a wolf, preys on a deer (Figure 2), the wolf is at the end of an energy path that went from nuclear reactions on the surface of the sun, to light, to photosynthesis, to vegetation, to deer, and finally to wolf. Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide (which is low in energy), and water as substrates (Figure 3).

These sugar molecules contain energy and the energized carbon that all living things need to survive. Figure 3.

Oxygen is generated as a waste product of photosynthesis. The following is the chemical equation for photosynthesis (Figure 4):

The basic equation for photosynthesis is deceptively simple. In reality, the process takes place in many steps involving intermediate reactants and products.

Although the equation looks simple, the many steps that take place during photosynthesis are actually quite complex. Before learning the details of how photoautotrophs turn sunlight into food, it is important to become familiar with the structures involved.

The process of photosynthesis occurs in a middle layer called the mesophyll. The gas exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen occurs through small, regulated openings called stomata (singular: stoma), which also play roles in the regulation of gas exchange and water balance.

Each stoma is flanked by guard cells that regulate the opening and closing of the stomata by swelling or shrinking in response to osmotic changes. In all autotrophic eukaryotes, photosynthesis takes place inside an organelle called a chloroplast.

Chloroplasts have a double membrane envelope (composed of an outer membrane and an inner membrane). Within the chloroplast are stacked, disc-shaped structures called thylakoids.

The thylakoid membrane encloses an internal space called the thylakoid lumen. As shown in Figure 5, a stack of thylakoids is called a granum, and the liquid-filled space surrounding the granum is called stroma or “bed” (not to be confused with stoma or “mouth,” an opening on the leaf epidermis).

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which have an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Stacks of thylakoids called grana form a third membrane layer.

On a hot, dry day, plants close their stomata to conserve water. What impact will this have on photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light independent-reactions. In the light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and that energy is converted into stored chemical energy.

Therefore, although the light-independent reactions do not use light as a reactant, they require the products of the light-dependent reactions to function. In addition, several enzymes of the light-independent reactions are activated by light.

The energy carriers that move energy from light-dependent reactions to light-independent reactions can be thought of as “full” because they are rich in energy. After the energy is released, the “empty” energy carriers return to the light-dependent reaction to obtain more energy.

Figure 6. Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle.

The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make GA3P from CO2. Figure 7.

(credit: Associação Brasileira de Supermercados). Major grocery stores in the United States are organized into departments, such as dairy, meats, produce, bread, cereals, and so forth.

Although there is a large variety, each item links back to photosynthesis. Meats and dairy link because the animals were fed plant-based foods.

What about desserts and drinks. All of these products contain sugar—sucrose is a plant product, a disaccharide, a carbohydrate molecule, which is built directly from photosynthesis.

Virtually every spice and flavoring in the spice aisle was produced by a plant as a leaf, root, bark, flower, fruit, or stem. Ultimately, photosynthesis connects to every meal and every food a person consumes.

When a person turns on a lamp, electrical energy becomes light energy. Like all other forms of kinetic energy, light can travel, change form, and be harnessed to do work.

However, autotrophs only use a few specific components of sunlight. The sun emits an enormous amount of electromagnetic radiation (sola.

This multipart animation series explores the process of photosynthesis and the structures that carry it out. Photosynthesis converts light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in organic molecules, which are used to build the cells of many producers and ultimately fuel ecosystems.

The animations detail both the light reactions and the Calvin cycle, focusing on the flow of energy and the cycling of matter. This animation series contains seven parts, which can be watched individually or in sequence.

The remaining parts are appropriate for high school through college-level students. Parts 5 and 6 are recommended for more advanced students.

The accompanying “Student Worksheet” incorporates concepts and information from the animations. The animations are also available in a YouTube playlist or as a full-length YouTube video.

Not all downloadable documents for the resource may be available in this format. The Google Drive folder is set as “View Only”.

When it comes to photosynthesis, the most important parts of the plant are the leaves. Their cells and structures are specialized to take in light and allow for gas exchange with the air around them.

Anyone who cares for plants could probably tell you that pouring water directly onto the leaves isn’t the best idea. Plants absorb water from the soil, using their roots.

You might wonder how the water gets from the roots into the leaves, and the answer is through the plant’s vascular system. Just like the veins and arteries that circulate blood throughout our bodies, the plant’s vascular tissues move water, nutrients, and the products of photosynthesis throughout the plant.

Capillary action—which relies on liquid’s properties of cohesion, surface tension, and adhesion—is what allows water to “defy gravity” as it travels through the xylem and into the leaves. Once photosynthesis has occurred, the produced sugars move through the phloem to other parts of the plant to be used in cellular respiration or stored for later.

stoma). They play a central role in photosynthesis, allowing carbon dioxide to enter the leaf and oxygen to exit the leaf.

The stomata can be opened and closed, depending on the turgor pressure—the pressure of a cell’s contents against the cell wall—in the two guard cells that border each stoma. High turgor pressure causes these cells to bend outward, opening the stomatal pore.

In leaves, cells in the mesophyll (the tissue between the upper and lower epidermis) are uniquely suited to carry out photosynthesis on a large scale. This is due to their high concentration of chloroplasts, which are the sites of photosynthesis.

Certain types of plants (dicots and some net-veined monocots) have two different types of mesophyll tissue. Palisade mesophyll cells are densely packed together, whereas spongy mesophyll cells are arranged more loosely to allow gases to pass through them.